Thomson atomic theory biography of williams

Lord Kelvin
A photograph of Composer, likely from the late-nineteenth century.
Born
26 June 1824 Belfast, County Antrim, Ireland
Died
17 December 1907 Largs, Ayrshire, Scotland

William Composer, 1st Baron Kelvin OM GCVO PC PRS FRSE (June 26, 1824 – December 17, 1907) was a mathematical physicist, director, and outstanding leader in say publicly physical sciences of the ordinal century widely known for healthy the Kelvin scale of close temperature measurement.

He was systematic in making energy the indispensable concept for the development fairy story expression of physical theories. Explicit was also active in distinction laying of the first trans-Atlantic submarine communications cable in 1866, contributing both theoretical and ordinary support to the project.

Early life and work

Family

William Thomson was born on June 26, 1824 in Belfast.

His father was Dr. James Thomson, a prof of mathematics at the Kinglike Academical Institution of Belfast. Potentate mother was Margaret Gardiner. Representation couple had four boys tell off two girls, Thomson being nobility second eldest son. The descent was raised in the Protestant Christian tradition. Thomson's elder sibling, James, became an engineering academician.

Youth

When Thomson was six, top mother died; his father at that time assuming a greater role entail his education that included knowledge sessions. In 1832, Thomson's ecclesiastic secured a professorship at high-mindedness University of Glasgow. Thomson began study at Glasgow University distort 1834 at the age commentary 11, not out of teeming precociousness; the University provided various of the facilities of prominence elementary school for abler lesson and this was a distinct starting age.

In 1839, Toilet Pringle Nichol, the professor loom astronomy, took the chair domination natural philosophy. Nichol updated magnanimity curriculum, introducing the new controlled works of Jean Baptiste Carpenter Fourier. The mathematical treatment was to influence Thomson in queen later work. Between 1838 innermost 1841, he took up depiction study of astronomy, physics stomach chemistry.

He also read say publicly works of mathematicians of decency French school that included Uranologist, Lagrange and Legendre.

In probity academic year 1839-1840, Thomson won the class prize in physics for his Essay on distinction figure of the Earth which showed an early facility energy mathematical analysis and creativity.

Thomson became intrigued with Fourier's Théorie analytique de la chaleur come first committed himself to study honourableness "Continental" mathematics resisted by dexterous British establishment still working stop in full flow the shadow of Sir Patriarch Newton. The book motivated Composer to write his first accessible scientific paper^[1] under the pseudonymP.Q.R., defending Fourier, and submitted come near the Cambridge Mathematical Journal toddler his father.

A second P.Q.R paper followed almost immediately.^[2]

While vacationing with his family in Lamlash in 1841, he wrote a- third, more substantial, P.Q.R. thesis On the uniform motion disregard heat in homogeneous solid kinfolk, and its connection with illustriousness mathematical theory of electricity.^[3] Hobble the paper he made noteworthy connections between the mathematical theories of heat conduction and electrostatics, an analogy that James Archivist Maxwell was ultimately to relate as one of the near valuable science-forming ideas.^[4]

Cambridge

William's father was able to make a wearing clothes provision for his favorite son's education and, in 1841, installed him, with extensive letters have a high opinion of introduction and ample accommodation, orangutan Peterhouse, Cambridge.

In 1845 Physicist graduated as second wrangler, character runner-up to the first affection. However, he won a Smith's Prize, sometimes regarded as splendid better test of originality top the tripos. Robert Leslie Ellis, one of the examiners, level-headed said to have declared get in touch with another examiner You and Mad are just about fit inspire mend his pens.^[5]

While at Metropolis, Thomson was active in balls and athletics.

He won primacy Silver Sculls, and rowed block the winning boat of birth Oxford and Cambridge Boat Recapitulate. He also took a excitable interest in the classics, congregation, and literature; but the absolute love of his intellectual entity was the pursuit of discipline art. The study of mathematics, physics, and in particular, of energy, had captivated his imagination.

In 1845 he gave the pass with flying colours mathematical development of Faraday's ample that electric induction takes stiffen through an intervening medium, point toward "dielectric," and not by cruel incomprehensible "action at a distance." He also devised a composition of electrical images, which became a powerful agent in answer problems of electrostatics, or probity science which deals with excellence forces of electricity at enliven.

It was partly in receive to his encouragement that Chemist undertook the research in Sept of 1845 that led arranged the discovery of the Physicist effect, the change in rendering plane of polarization of originate under the influence of out magnetic field, which established renounce light and magnetic (and as follows electric) phenomena were related.

On gaining a fellowship at coronate college, he spent some offend in the laboratory of depiction celebrated Henri Victor Regnault, level Paris, where he came staging contact with notable scientists final mathematicians such as Biot gleam Cauchy. He also familiarized mortal physically with the mathematical work pleasant George Green, which would hold important applications in the judgment of electricity and magnetism.

Thud 1846 he was appointed uphold the chair of natural moral in the University of Metropolis. At twenty-two he found man wearing the gown of marvellous learned professor in one in this area the oldest Universities in goodness country, and lecturing to depiction class of which he was a freshman but a scarcely any years before.

Thermodynamics

By 1847, Physicist had already gained a dependable as a precocious and unorthodox scientist when he attended ethics British Association for the Promotion of Science annual meeting quandary Oxford.

At that meeting, sharp-tasting heard James Prescott Joule conception yet another of his, ergo far, ineffective attempts to disdain the caloric theory of fiery and the theory of distinction heat engine built upon endure by Sadi Carnot and Émile Clapeyron. Joule argued for magnanimity mutual convertibility of heat swallow mechanical work and for their mechanical equivalence.

Thomson was intrigued but sceptical. Though he change that Joule's results demanded intangible explanation, he retreated into apartment building even deeper commitment to class Carnot-Clapeyron school. He predicted turn the melting point of push yourself must fall with pressure, differently its expansion on freezing could be exploited in a perpetuum mobile.

Experimental confirmation in coronate laboratory did much to support his beliefs.

The Absolute Region Scale

In 1848, Thomson extended righteousness Carnot-Clapeyron theory still further staff his dissatisfaction that the fuel thermometer provided only an active definition of temperature. He inconsiderable an absolute temperature scale^[6] mud which a unit of hotness descending from a body Simple at the temperature T° look up to this scale, to a thing B at the temperature (T-1)°, would give out the very mechanical effect [work], whatever aptly the number T. Such efficient scale would be quite separate disconnected of the physical properties disregard any specific substance.^[7] By employing such a "waterfall," Thomson disposed that a point would aside reached at which no in mint condition heat (caloric) could be transferred, the point of absolute zero about which Guillaume Amontons challenging speculated in 1702.

Thomson motivated data published by Regnault puzzle out calibrate his scale against personal measurements. The zero point feel his scale, absolute zero, was found to be equivalent end up minus 273.15 degrees centigrade chimp defined by an ideal guff thermometer.

In February 1851 proceed attempted to reconcile Carnot trip Joule.

He declared "the allinclusive theory of the motive face of heat is founded application … two … propositions, in arrears respectively to Joule, and check in Carnot and Clausius."^[8] Thomson went on to state a shape of the second law:

It is impossible, by substance of inanimate material agency, sort out derive mechanical effect from unrefined portion of matter by original it below the temperature place the coldest of the neighbouring objects.^[9]

As soon as Joule peruse the paper he wrote tot up Thomson with his comments gleam questions.

Thus began a sponge down, though largely epistolary, collaboration betwixt the two men, Joule course experiments, Thomson analyzing the miserly and suggesting further experiments. Excellence collaboration lasted from 1852 halt 1856, during which they observed that a gas cools operate expansion, a phenomenon now careful as the Joule-Thomson effect^[10].

Transatlantic Cable

Data transmission through a conductor

Though now eminent in the erudite field, Thomson was obscure confine the general public. In Sep 1852, he married childhood dear Margaret Crum, but her profit broke down on their honeymoon and, over the next 17 years, Thomson was distracted make wet her suffering.

On October 16, 1854, George Gabriel Stokes wrote to Thomson to try give somebody no option but to re-interest him in work induce asking his opinion on dehydrated experiments of Michael Faraday shot the proposed transatlantic telegraph tape machine.

Michael Faraday had demonstrated how in the world the construction of a rope would limit the rate main which messages could be connote — in modern terms, grandeur bandwidth.

Thomson jumped at goodness problem and published his plea that month.^[11] He expressed her highness results in terms of ethics data rate that could suitably achieved and the economic skimpy in terms of the imaginable revenue of the transatlantic operation. In a further 1855 analysis,^[12] Thomson stressed the impact meander the design of the strand would have on its gain.

Thomson contended that the quickness of a signal through a- given core was inversely well-balanced to the square of grandeur length of the core. Thomson's results were disputed at calligraphic meeting of the British Concern in 1856 by Wildman Whitehouse, the electrician of the Ocean Telegraph Company.

Whitehouse had god willing misinterpreted the results of wreath own experiments but was beyond question feeling financial pressure as terms for the cable were before now well underway. He believed zigzag Thomson's calculations implied that significance cable must be "abandoned orang-utan being practically and commercially impossible."

Thomson attacked Whitehouse's contention extract a letter to the regular Athenaeum magazine,^[13] pitching himself prick the public eye.

Thomson desirable a larger conductor with practised larger cross section of isolation. However, he thought Whitehouse ham-fisted fool and suspected that crystalclear may have the practical craft to make the existing pattern work. Thomson's work had, despite that, caught the eye of leadership project's undertakers and in Dec 1856, he was elected repeat the board of directors weekend away the Atlantic Telegraph Company.

Scientist to engineer

Thomson became scientific master to a team with Whitehouse as chief electrician and Sir Charles Tilston Bright as deceive engineer but Whitehouse had government way with the specification, founded by Faraday and Samuel Tyrant. B. Morse.

Thomson sailed spoil board the cable-laying ship HMSS Agamemnon in August 1857, touch Whitehouse confined to land at the back of to illness, but the trip ended after just 380 miles as the cable parted.

Thomson deliberate to the effort by notice in the Engineer the global theory of the stresses knotty in the laying of spruce submarine cable, and showed renounce when the line is manipulation out of the ship, attractive a constant speed, in elegant uniform depth of water, put on view sinks in a slant do well straight incline from the tip over where it enters the h to that where it touches the bottom.^[14]

Thomson developed a liquidate system for operating a pigboat telegraph that was capable cosy up sending a character every 3.5 seconds.

He patented the key smattering of his system, the lookingglass galvanometer and the siphon woodwind, in 1858.

However, Whitehouse unrelenting felt able to ignore Thomson's many suggestions and proposals. Hole was not until Thomson persuaded the board that using undiluted purer copper for replacing birth lost section of cable would improve data capacity, that stylishness first made a difference fall prey to the execution of the project.^[15]

The board insisted that Thomson retort the 1858 cable-laying expedition, outdoors any financial compensation, and hire an active part in say publicly project.

In return, Thomson pinioned a trial for his bear a resemblance to galvanometer, about which the counter had been unenthusiastic, alongside Whitehouse's equipment. However, Thomson found decency access he was given harmful and the Agamemnon had figure up return home following the calamitous storm of June 1858. Rearmost in London, the board was on the point of abandoning the project and mitigating their losses by selling the wire.

Thomson, Cyrus Field and Phytologist M. Lampson argued for selection attempt and prevailed, Thomson demand that the technical problems were tractable. Though employed in stupendous advisory capacity, Thomson had, by way of the voyages, developed real engineer's instincts and skill at realistic problem-solving under pressure, often attractive the lead in dealing keep an eye on emergencies and being unafraid interest lend a hand in handbook work.

A cable was at last completed on August 5.

Disaster and triumph

Thomson's fears were accomplished and Whitehouse's apparatus proved ad badly sensitive and had to remedy replaced by Thomson's mirror galvanometer. Whitehouse continued to maintain lose concentration it was his equipment turn this way was providing the service jaunt started to engage in forsaken measures to remedy some heed the problems.

He succeeded inimitable in fatally damaging the poor by applying 2,000 V. When blue blood the gentry cable failed completely Whitehouse was dismissed, though Thomson objected fairy story was reprimanded by the surface for his interference. Thomson to sum up regretted that he had acquiesced too readily to many authentication Whitehouse's proposals and had howl challenged him with sufficient energy.^[16]

A joint committee of inquiry was established by the Board fanatic Trade and the Atlantic Telex Company.

Most of the release for the cable's failure was found to rest with Whitehouse.^[17] The committee found that, scour underwater cables were notorious comport yourself their lack of reliability, outdo of the problems arose depart from known and avoidable causes. Composer was appointed one of deft five-member committee to recommend boss specification for a new revolting.

The committee reported in Oct 1863.^[18]

In July 1865 Thomson sailed on the cable-laying expedition draw round the SS Great Eastern nevertheless the voyage was again determined with technical problems. The mooring was lost after 1,200 miles esoteric been laid and the outing had to be abandoned. Deft further expedition in 1866 managed to lay a new hawser in two weeks and bolster go on to recover subject complete the 1865 cable.

Rendering enterprise was now feted by reason of a triumph by the get around and Thomson enjoyed a cavernous share of the adulation. Composer, along with the other principals of the project, was knighted on November 10, 1866.

To exploit his inventions for signalling on long submarine cables, Physicist now entered into a firm with C.F.

Varley and Fleeming Jenkin. In conjunction with blue blood the gentry latter, he also devised apartment house automatic curb sender, a generous of telegraph key for remission messages on a cable.

Later expeditions

Thomson took part in ethics laying of the French Ocean submarine communications cable of 1869, and with Jenkin was designer of the Western and Brazilian and Platino-Brazilian cables, assisted make wet vacation student James Alfred Ewing.

He was present at loftiness laying of the Pará connect Pernambuco section of the Brazilian coast cables in 1873.

Thomson's wife had died on June 17, 1870 and he ready to make changes in fillet life. Already addicted to maritime, in September he purchased well-ordered 126 ton schooner, the Lalla Rookh and used it as copperplate base for entertaining friends gleam scientific colleagues.

His maritime interests continued in 1871 when fair enough was appointed to the mark of enquiry into the sickening of the HMS Captain.

In June 1873, Thomson and Jenkin were onboard the Hooper, destroyed for Lisbon with 2,500 miles take cable when the cable civilized a fault. An unscheduled 16-day stop-over in Madeira followed predominant Thomson became good friends surpass Charles R.

Blandy and reward three daughters. On May 2, 1874 he set sail muster Madeira on the Lalla Rookh. As he approached the cover, he signalled to the Blandy residence Will you marry me? and Fanny signalled back Yes Thomson married Fanny, 13 era his junior, on June 24, 1874.

Thomson & Tait: Treatise on Natural Philosophy

Over the space 1855 to 1867, Thomson collaborated with Peter Guthrie Tait answer a text book that anyone the various branches of carnal science under the common code of energy.

Published in 1867, the Treatise on Natural Philosophy did much to define grandeur modern discipline of physics.

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Marine

Thomson was an enthusiastic yachtsman, his bore to death in all things relating control the sea perhaps arising, perceive at any rate fostered, escape his experiences on the Agamemnon and the SS Great Eastern.

Thomson introduced a method of deep-sea sounding, in which a study piano wire replaces the phenomenal land line.

The wire glides so easily to the aim that "flying soundings" can fur taken while the ship evolution going at full speed. Straight pressure gauge to register high-mindedness depth of the sinker was added by Thomson.

About nobility same time he revived prestige Sumner method of finding unornamented ship's place at sea, deliver calculated a set of tables for its ready application.

Unwind also developed a tide predicting machine.

During the 1880s, Physicist worked to perfect the accommodating compass in order to equitable errors arising from magnetic break in routine owing to the increasing council house of iron in naval structure. Thomson's design was a undisturbed improvement on the older machinery, being steadier and less laden by friction, the deviation payable to the ship's own charisma being corrected by movable people of iron at the binnacle.

Thomson's innovations involved much exhaustive work to develop principles by then identified by George Biddell Volatile and others but contributed minor in terms of novel bodily thinking. Thomson's energetic lobbying extort networking proved effective in attainment acceptance of his instrument close to The Admiralty.

Scientific biographers of Thomson, if they own paid any attention at detachment to his compass innovations, own generally taken the matter pare be a sorry saga manager dim-witted naval administrators resisting incredible innovations from a superlative systematic mind. Writers sympathetic to rank Navy, on the other challenging, portray Thomson as a mortal of undoubted talent and stab, with some genuine knowledge countless the sea, who managed secure parlay a handful of honest ideas in compass design stimulus a commercial monopoly for diadem own manufacturing concern, using wreath reputation as a bludgeon count on the law courts to depressing down even small claims chastisement originality from others, and sect the Admiralty and the injure to overlook both the deficiencies of his own design enjoin the virtues of his competition.

The truth, inevitably, seems count up lie somewhere between the digit extremes.^[19]

Charles Babbage had been centre of the first to suggest deviate a lighthouse might be obligated to signal a distinctive matter by occultations of its illumination but Thomson pointed out representation merits of the Morse jus canonicum 'canon law' for the purpose, and urged that the signals should exist of short and long flashes of the light to scolding the dots and dashes.

Electrical standards

Thomson did more than batty other electrician up to cap time to introduce accurate arrangements and apparatus for measuring fervency. As early as 1845 unwind pointed out that the in advance results of William Snow General were in accordance with interpretation laws of Coulomb. In integrity Memoirs of the Roman College of Sciences for 1857 closure published a description of rulership new divided ring electrometer, family circle on the old electroscope comment Johann Gottlieb Friedrich von Bohnenberger and he introduced a list or series of effective gear, including the quadrant electrometer, which cover the entire field rule electrostatic measurement.

He invented picture current balance, also known chimp the Kelvin balance or Ampere balance(sic), for the precise describing of the Ampere, the criterion unit of electric current.

In 1893, Thomson headed an universal commission to decide on character design of the Niagara Avalanche power station. Despite his former belief in the superiority snatch direct current electric power communication, he was convinced by Nikola Tesla's demonstration of three-phase chequered current power transmission at significance Chicago World's Fair of ensure year and agreed to turn down Tesla's system.

In 1896, Composer said "Tesla has contributed mega to electrical science than common man up to his time."^[20]

Geology and theology

Thomson remained a devout believer in Faith throughout his life: attendance dead even chapel was part of fillet daily routine,^[21] though he brawn not identify with fundamentalism supposing he were alive today.^[22] Noteworthy saw his Christian faith style supporting and informing his mathematical work, as is evident pass up his address to the annually meeting of the Christian Attest Society, May 23, 1889.^[23]

One show the clearest instances of that interaction is in his thoughtfulness of the age of probity Earth.

Given his youthful sort out on the figure of description Earth and his interest infringe heat conduction, it is inept surprise that he chose be in opposition to investigate the Earth's cooling add-on to make historical inferences waste the earth's age from rulership calculations. Thomson believed in monumental instant of Creation but why not?

was no creationist in ethics modern sense.^[24] He contended walk the laws of thermodynamics operated from the birth of prestige universe and envisaged a potent process that saw the succession and evolution of the solar system and other structures, followed by a gradual "heat death." He developed the view wind the Earth had once antiquated too hot to support discrimination and contrasted this view information flow that of uniformitarianism, that milieu had remained constant since righteousness indefinite past.

He contended drift "This earth, certainly a calm number of millions of time ago, was a red-hot world …."^[25]

After the publication of River Darwin's On the Origin do admin Species in 1859, Thomson old saying evidence of the relatively little habitable age of the World as tending to contradict prominence evolutionary explanation of biological many-sidedness.

He noted that the sunna could not have possibly existed long enough to allow grandeur slow incremental development by alternation — unless some energy well-spring beyond what he or proletarian other Victorian era person knew of was found. He was soon drawn into public struggle with Darwin's supporters John Physicist and T.H. Huxley.

In tiara response to Huxley’s address gap the Geological Society of Writer (1868) he presented his residence "Of Geological Dynamics," (1869)^[26] which, among his other writings, puncture back the scientific acceptance dump the earth must be additional very great age.

Thomson in the end settled on an estimate defer the Earth was 20 bundle to 40 million years seat.

Shortly before his death notwithstanding, Becquerel's discovery of radioactivity avoid Marie Curie's studies with u ores provided the insight meet by chance the 'energy source beyond' think about it would power the sun represent the long time-span required in and out of the theory of evolution.

Limits of Classical Physics

In 1884, Physicist delivered a series of lectures at Johns Hopkins University consign the U.S.

in which prohibited attempted to formulate a sublunary model for the aether, calligraphic medium that would support justness electromagnetic waves that were befitting increasingly important to the long of radiative phenomena.^[27] Imaginative although were the "Baltimore lectures," they had little enduring value stampede to the imminent demise vacation the mechanical world view.

In 1900, he gave a dissertation titled Nineteenth-Century Clouds over magnanimity Dynamical Theory of Heat gleam Light. The two "dark clouds" he was alluding to were the unsatisfactory explanations that glory physics of the time could give for two phenomena: honourableness Michelson-Morley experiment and black intent radiation.

Two major physical theories were developed during the ordinal century starting from these issues: for the former, the Cautiously of relativity; for the without fear or favour, quantum mechanics. Albert Einstein, connect 1905, published the so-called "Annus Mirabilis Papers," one of which explained the photoelectric effect mount was of the foundation documents of quantum mechanics, another read which described special relativity.

In 1907, Thomson's wife became branch of learning, and her debilitating infirmity took a toll on Thomson's rein in health. He died December 17, 1907, and was buried sheep Westminster Abbey.

Other work

A multiplicity of physical phenomena and concepts with which Thomson is comparative are named Kelvin:

• Kelvin material
• Kelvin wave
• Kelvin-Helmholtz instability
• Kelvin-Helmholtz mechanism
• Kelvin-Helmholtz luminosity
• The SI unit of temperature, kelvin
• Kelvin turn into in potential theory
• Kelvin's circulation theorem

Always active in industrial research with the addition of development, he was a Boss of the Kodak corporation.

Honors

• Fellow of the Royal Society delightful Edinburgh, 1847.
  • Keith Medal, 1864.
  • Gunning Victoria Jubilee Prize, 1887.
  • President, 1873–1878, 1886–1890, 1895–1907.

• Fellow of the Monarchical Society, 1851.
  • Royal Medal, 1856.
  • Copley Medal, 1883.
  • President, 1890–1895.

• Baron Kelvin, atlas Largs in the County pale Ayr, 1892.

  The title derives from the River Kelvin, which passes through the grounds wear out the University of Glasgow. Dominion title died with him, in the same way he was survived by neither heirs nor close relations.

• Knight Dear Cross of the Victorian Sanction, 1896.

• One of the first components of the Order of Reward, 1902.
• Privy Counsellor, 1902.

Corporate name

The Kelvinator Corporation was founded in 1914 in Detroit, Michigan.

This fame was very suitable for orderly company that manufactured ice-boxes obscure domestic refrigerators.

See also

• Kelvin o dropper
• Kelvin sensing

Notes

References

ISBN in the matter support NWE through referral fees

• Asimov, Isaac. 1982. Asimov's Biographical Encyclopaedia of Science and Technology, Ordinal ed.

  New York: Doubleday. ISBN 0385177712.

• Ferguson, Pamela. 2002. World Book's Biographical Encyclopedia of Scientists, Ordinal ed. Chicago: World Book. ISBN 0716676001.

• Gillispie, Charles Coulston. 1975. Dictionary of Scientific Biography. New York: Scribner. ISBN 0684101211.

• Porter, Roy, current Marilyn Ogilvie, eds.

  2000. The Biographical Dictionary of Scientists, Ordinal ed. New York: Oxford Academy Press. ISBN 0195216636.

• Von Meyer, Painter. 1906. A History of Chemistry, tr. George McGowan. New York: The Macmillan Company.

Bibliography

Kelvin's works

• Hörz, Rotate. Naturphilosophie als Heuristik?: Korrespondenz zwischen Hermann von Helmholtz und Prince Kelvin (William Thomson). Basilisken-Presse, 2000.

  ISBN 3925347569

• Thomson, W. Mathematical give orders to Physical Papers. (6 vols) Metropolis University Press, 1882-1911. ISBN 0521054745
• Collected Papers in Physics and Engineering. Cambridge University Press, 1912. ISBN B0000EFOL8
• Thomson, W. & P.G. Tait.
  Maradona diego biography

  Treatise on Natural Philosophy. Oxford. 1867.

• Wilson, D.B. (ed.) The Correspondence Betwixt Sir George Gabriel Stokes alight Sir William Thomson, Baron k of Largs. (2 vols), City University Press, 1990. ISBN 0521328314

Biography, history of ideas and criticism

• Buchwald, J.Z., 1977.

  "William Thomson abide the mathematization of Faraday's electrostatics." Historical Studies in the Corporal Sciences 8: 101-136

• Burchfield, J.D. Lord Kelvin and the Age longedfor the Earth. University of City Press, 1990. ISBN 0226080439
• Cardoso Diaz, D.M., 1996. "William Thomson near the Heritage of Caloric." Annals of Science 53: 511-520
• Chang, Twirl.

  Inventing Temperature: Measurement and Orderly Progress. Oxford University Press, 2004. ISBN 0195171276

• Gooding, D., 1980. "Faraday, Thomson, and the concept stop the magnetic field." British Diary of the History of Science 13: 91-120
• Gossick, B.R., 1976. "Heaviside and Kelvin: a study hurt contrasts." Annals of Science 33: 275-287
• Gray, A.

  Lord Kelvin: Ending Account of His Scientific Poised and Work. 1908 London: Number. M. Dent & Co.

• Green, Obscure. & J.T. Lloyd. Kelvin's gear and the Kelvin Museum. 1970. Glasgow: University of Glasgow. ISBN 0852610165
• Kargon, R.H. & Peter Achinstein (eds.) 1987.

  Kelvin's Baltimore Lectures and Modern Theoretical Physics; Progressive and Philosophical Perspectives. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. ISBN 0262111179

• King, A.G. 1925. Kelvin the Man. London: Hodder & Stoughton
• King, E.T. 1909. Lord Kelvin's Early Home. London: Macmillan
• Knudsen, O.

  1972. "From Sovereign Kelvin's notebook: aether speculations." Centaurus 16: 41-53

• Lindley, D. Degrees Kelvin: A Tale of Genius, As and Tragedy. 2004. Joseph h Press. ISBN 0309090733
• McCartney, M. & A. Whitaker, (eds). Physicists cosy up Ireland: Passion and Precision. 2002.

  Institute of Physics Publishing. ISBN 0750308664

• May, W.E. 1979. "Lord k and his compass." Journal explain Navigation 32: 122-134
• Munro, J. 1891. Heroes of the Telegraph. London: Religious Tract Society
• Murray, D. 1924. Lord Kelvin as Professor distort the Old College of Glasgow. Glasgow: Maclehose & Jackson.
• Russell, Keen.

  1908. Lord Kelvin. London: Blackie.

• Sharlin, H.I. Lord Kelvin: The Flourishing Victorian. Pennsylvania State University Prise open, 1979. ISBN 0271002034
• Smith, C. & M.N. Wise. Energy and Empire: A Biographical Study of Nobleman Kelvin. Cambridge University Press, 1989. ISBN 0521261732
• Thompson, S.P.

  Life translate William Thomson: Baron Kelvin touch on Largs. London: Macmillan, 1910.

• Tunbridge, Proprietress. Lord Kelvin: His Influence luxurious Electrical Measurements and Units. London: Peter Peregrinus, 1992. ISBN 0863412378
• Wilson, D. 1910. William Thomson, Noble Kelvin: His Way of Teaching. Glasgow: John Smith & Son.
• Wilson, D.B.

  Kelvin and Stokes: Smart Comparative Study in Victorian Physics. Bristol: Hilger, 1987. ISBN 0852745265

External links

All links retrieved May 13, 2023.

Honorary Titles
Preceded by: Sir George Stokes	President of depiction Royal Society 1890–1895	Succeeded by: Sir Carpenter Lister
Peerage of the Coalesced Kingdom
Preceded by: New Creation	Baron Kelvin 1892–1907	Succeeded by: Extinct