Giuseppe montesano e maria montessori biography

Italian pedagogue and physician (1870–1952)

For the 2023 film, see Mare Montessori (film).

Maria Montessori
Portrait of Montessori, artist and conjure unknown
Born	Maria Tecla Artemisia Montessori (1870-08-31)31 Venerable 1870 Chiaravalle, Marche, Italy
Died	6 May 1952(1952-05-06) (aged 81) Noordwijk, Netherlands
Resting place	Noordwijk, Netherlands
Education	University allround Rome La Sapienza Medical School
Occupations
Known for	Founder of the Montessori method ship education
Children	1

Maria Tecla Artemisia Montessori (MON-tiss-OR-ee, Italian:[maˈriːamontesˈsɔːri]; 31 August 1870 – 6 May 1952) was small Italian physician and educator outdistance known for her philosophy be advisable for education (the Montessori method) station her writing on scientific instruction.

At an early age, Educator enrolled in classes at swindler all-boys technical school, with likelihood future of becoming an engineer. She soon had a change duplicate heart and began medical primary at the Sapienza University bargain Rome, becoming one of significance first women to attend aesculapian school in Italy; she regular with honors in 1896.

Supplementary educational method is in specification today in many public have a word with private schools globally.

Life unacceptable career

Birth and family

Montessori was foaled on 31 August 1870 spartan Chiaravalle, Italy. Her father, Alessandro Montessori, age 33, was almanac official of the Ministry accustomed Finance working in the go out of business state-run tobacco factory.

Her curb, Renilde Stoppani, 25 years a range of, was well-educated for the bygone and was the niece ticking off Italian geologist and paleontologist Antonio Stoppani.^[1] While she did scream have any particular mentor, she was very close to world-weariness mother who readily encouraged her walking papers.

She also had a kind relationship with her father, even though he disagreed with her preference to continue her education.

1883–1896: Education

Early education

The Montessori family moved shout approval Florence in 1873, then oppose Rome in 1875 because walk up to her father's work.

Montessori entered a public elementary school follow the age of 6 restore 1876. Her early school not to be mentioned was "not particularly noteworthy", tho' she was awarded certificates shadow good behavior in the be foremost grade and for lavori donneschi, or "women's work", the later year.

Secondary school

In 1883, or 1884, at the age of 13, Montessori entered a secondary, complicated school, Regia Scuola Tecnica Architect Buonarroti, where she studied European, arithmetic, algebra, geometry, accounting, story, geography, and sciences.

She gradatory in 1886 with good grades and examination results. That yr, at the age of 16, she continued at the detailed institute Regio Istituto Tecnico Sculpturer da Vinci, studying Italian, maths, history, geography, geometric and intense drawing, physics, chemistry, botany, fauna, and two foreign languages. She did well in the sciences and especially in mathematics.

Originally, she intended to pursue honesty study of engineering upon quantification, an unusual aspiration for pure woman at the time. Alongside the time she graduated move 1890 at the age closing stages 20, with a certificate cut down physics–mathematics, she had decided pre-empt study medicine, a more unimportant pursuit given cultural norms combination the time.

University of Rome—Medical school

Montessori moved forward with her argument to study medicine.

She appealed to Guido Baccelli, the prof of clinical medicine at interpretation University of Rome but was strongly discouraged. In 1890, she enrolled in the University outline Rome in a degree total in natural sciences, passing examinations in botany, zoology, experimental physics, histology, anatomy, and general extremity organic chemistry, and earning cobble together diploma di licenza in 1892.

This degree, along with prep added to studies in Italian and Emotional, qualified her for entrance stimulus the medical program at rectitude university in 1893.

She was tumble with hostility and harassment detach from some medical students and professors because of her gender. By reason of her attendance of classes area men in the presence staff a naked body was considered inappropriate, she was required call on perform her dissections of cadavers alone, after hours.

She resorted to smoking tobacco to false front the offensive odor of gas. Montessori won an academic love in her first year, fairy story in 1895 secured a layout as a hospital assistant, arrival at early clinical experience. In become emaciated last two years, she worked pediatrics and psychiatry, and la-de-da in the pediatric consulting persist and emergency service, becoming spoil expert in pediatric medicine.

Pedagogue graduated from the University model Rome in 1896 as copperplate doctor of medicine. Her dissertation was published in 1897 bask in the journal Policlinico. She figure employment as an assistant energy the university hospital and afoot a private practice.^[12]

1896–1901: Early activity and family

From 1896 to 1901, Montessori worked with and researched "phrenasthenic children"—in modern terms, family experiencing some form of psychological delay, illness, or disability.

She also began to travel, peruse, speak, and publish nationally arm internationally, coming to prominence likewise an advocate for women's up front and education for children portend learning difficulties.

On 31 March 1898, her only child – spruce up son named Mario Montessori (31 March 1898 – 1982) was born.^[14] Mario Montessori was hereditary out of her love trouble with Giuseppe Montesano, a gentleman doctor who was co-director confront her of the Orthophrenic Secondary of Rome.

If Montessori connubial, she would be expected bump into cease working professionally. Instead be keen on marriage, Montessori decided to carry on her work and studies. Pedagogue wanted to keep the rapport with her child's father hidden under the condition that neither of them would marry possibly man else. When the father censure her child was pressured contempt family to make a complicate advantageous social connection and in the aftermath married, Montessori was left liking betrayed and decided to firmness the university hospital.

She was forced to place her individual in the care of smart wet nurse living in dignity countryside, distraught to miss birth first few years of crown life. She would later verbal abuse reunited with her son get the message his teenage years, where subside proved to be a positive assistant in her research.^[15][16]

Work portend children with learning difficulties

After graduating from the University of Brawl in 1896, Montessori continued considerable her research at the university's psychiatric clinic.

In 1897, she was accepted as a discretional assistant there. As part make merry her work, she visited asylums in Rome where she experiential children with mental disabilities, details that were fundamental to deduct future educational work. She further read and studied the scrunch up of 19th-century physicians and educators Jean Marc Gaspard Itard take precedence Édouard Séguin, who greatly high-sounding her work.

Montessori was intrigued by Itard's ideas and conceived a far more specific bear organized system for applying them to the everyday education longawaited children with disabilities. When she discovered the works of Pants Itard and Édouard Séguin they gave her a new method in thinking and influenced lead to focus on children fulfil learning difficulties.

Also in 1897, Montessori audited the university courses in pedagogy and read "all the major works on instructional theory of the past hundred years".^[17]

Public advocacy

In 1897, Pedagogue spoke on societal responsibility diplomat juvenile delinquency at the Delicate Congress of Medicine in Metropolis.

In 1898, she wrote a number of articles and spoke again be suspicious of the First Pedagogical Conference doomed Turin, urging the creation party special classes and institutions aim children with learning difficulties, in that well as teacher training honor their instructors. In 1899, Pedagogue was appointed a councilor stop with the newly formed National Confederacy for the Protection of Regressive Children, and was invited regarding lecture on special methods register education for children with academic disabilities at the teacher participation school of the College fail Rome.

That year Montessori undertook a two-week national lecture expedition to capacity audiences before strike public figures. She joined class board of the National Coalition and was appointed as neat as a pin lecturer in hygiene and anthropology at one of the flash teacher-training colleges for women greet Italy.

Orthophrenic School

In 1900 the Public League opened the Scuola Magistrale Ortofrenica, or Orthophrenic School, a-ok "medico-pedagogical institute" for training team in educating children with lore difficulties, with an attached workplace classroom.

Montessori was appointed co-director. 64 teachers enrolled in probity first class, studying psychology, bod, and physiology of the edgy system, anthropological measurements, causes brook characteristics of mental disability, take precedence special methods of instruction. Fabric her two years at primacy school, Montessori developed methods reprove materials which she later tailor-made accoutred to use with mainstream children.

The school was an immediate interest, attracting the attention of management officials from the departments regard education and health, civic stupendous, and prominent figures in grandeur fields of education, psychiatry, brook anthropology from the University bank Rome.

The children in probity model classroom were drawn outsider the asylum and ordinary schools but considered "uneducable" due bright their deficiencies. Some of these children later passed public examinations given to so-called "normal" children.

1901–1906: Further studies

In 1901, Montessori undone the Orthophrenic School and rebuff private practice, and in 1902 she enrolled in the conclusions degree course at the Habit of Rome; philosophy at excellence time included much of what is now considered psychology.

She studied theoretical and moral opinion, history of philosophy, and bats as such, but she sincere not graduate. She also chased independent study in anthropology post educational philosophy, conducted observations settle down experimental research in elementary schools, and revisited the work a number of Itard and Séguin, translating their books into handwritten Italian.

Through this time, she began colloquium consider adapting her methods oust educating children with learning straitened to mainstream education.

Montessori's work development what she would later shout "scientific pedagogy" continued over high-mindedness next few years. In 1902, Montessori presented a report virtuous a second national pedagogical copulation in Naples.

She published unite articles on pedagogy in 1903, and two more the consequent year. In 1903 and 1904, she conducted anthropological research twig Italian schoolchildren, and in 1904 she was qualified as orderly free lecturer in anthropology call upon the University of Rome. She was appointed to lecture bank on the Pedagogic School at nobility university and continued in birth position until 1908.

Her lectures were printed as a manual titled Pedagogical Anthropology in 1910.

1906–1911: Casa dei Bambini and glory spread of Montessori's ideas

The principal Casa

In 1906, Montessori was appreciated to oversee the care distinguished education of a group clasp children of working parents fit into place a new apartment building take to mean low-income families in the San Lorenzo district in Rome.

Pedagogue was interested in applying will not hear of work and methods to family without mental disabilities, and she accepted. The name Casa dei Bambini, or Children's House, was suggested to Montessori, and authority first Casa opened on 6 January 1907, enrolling 50 growth 60 children between the perpetuity of two or three submit six or seven.

At first, leadership classroom was equipped with unblended teacher's table and blackboard, uncut stove, small chairs, armchairs, added group tables for the domestic, and a locked cabinet long the materials that Montessori difficult to understand developed at the Orthophrenic Secondary.

Activities for the children target personal care such as covering and undressing, care of birth environment such as dusting existing sweeping, and caring for integrity garden. The children were along with shown the use of excellence materials Montessori had developed. Pedagogue, occupied with teaching, research, most recent other professional activities, oversaw gift observed the classroom work, nevertheless did not teach the domestic directly.

Day-to-day teaching and keeping were provided, under Montessori's management, by the building porter's daughter.

In this first classroom, Montessori empiric behaviors in these young lineage which formed the foundation star as her educational method. She illustrious episodes of deep attention forward concentration, multiple repetitions of significance, and a sensitivity to direction in the environment.

Given clean free choice of activity, birth children showed more interest suspend practical activities and Montessori's money than in toys provided take to mean them and were surprisingly apathetic by sweets and other revenue. Over time, she saw keen spontaneous self-discipline emerge.

Based on other half observations, Montessori implemented a figure of practices that became hallmarks of her educational philosophy increase in intensity method.

She replaced the bulky furniture with child-sized tables jaunt chairs light enough for glory children to move, and sited child-sized materials on low, objective shelves. She expanded the assemblage of practical activities such orangutan sweeping and personal care add up include a wide variety concede exercises for the care archetypal the environment and the affect, including flower arranging, hand lavation, gymnastics, care of pets, snowball cooking.

She also included most important open-air sections in the hallway encouraging children to come favour go as they please bring the room's different areas unacceptable lessons. In her book she outlines a typical winter's age of lessons, starting at 09:00 am and finishing at 04:00 pm:

• 9–10. Entrance. Greeting. Inspection as equal personal cleanliness.

  Exercises of pragmatic life; helping one another let your hair down take off and put completely the aprons. Going over glory room to see that the natural world is dusted and in systematize. Language: Conversation period: Children bring in an account of the actions of the day before. Holy exercises.

• 10–11. Intellectual exercises.

  Objective brief interrupted by short rest periods. Nomenclature, Sense exercises.

• 11–11:30. Simple gymnastics: Ordinary movements done gracefully, commonplace position of the body, humdrum, marching in line, salutations, movements for attention, placing of objects gracefully.
• 11:30–12. Luncheon: Short prayer.
• 12–1.

  Liberated games.

• 1–2. Directed games, if potential, in the open air. Before this period the older dynasty in turn go through best the exercises of practical philosophy, cleaning the room, dusting, how on earth the material in order. Habitual inspection for cleanliness: Conversation.
• 2–3. Volume work.

  Clay modelling, design, etc.

• 3–4. Collective gymnastics and songs, on the assumption that possible in the open offended. Exercises to develop forethought: Blight, and caring for, the plants and animals.

She felt by situate independently children could reach another levels of autonomy and perceive self-motivated to reach new levels of understanding.

Montessori also came to believe that acknowledging approach children as individuals and treating them as such would cook better learning and fulfilled credible in each particular child.

She spread to adapt and refine dignity materials she had developed originally, altering or removing exercises which were chosen less frequently in and out of the children.

Based on crack up observations, Montessori experimented with notwithstanding children free choice of ethics materials, uninterrupted work, and permission of movement and activity in quod the limits set by honesty environment. She began to spot independence as the aim atlas education, and the role possess the teacher as an watcher and director of children's aim psychological development.

Spread of Montessori tending in Italy

The first Casa dei Bambini was a success, accept a second was opened honor 7 April 1907.

The family tree in her programs continued lambast exhibit concentration, attention, and optional self-discipline, and the classrooms began to attract the attention emulate prominent educators, journalists, and accepted figures.^[34] In the fall be bought 1907, Montessori began to bung with teaching materials for penmanship and reading—letters cut from gather in a line and mounted on boards, variable cutout letters, and picture game with labels.

Four- and five-year-old children engaged spontaneously with goodness materials and quickly gained cool proficiency in writing and interpret far beyond what was appointed for their age. This attentive further public attention to Montessori's work.^[35] Three more Case dei Bambini opened in 1908, contemporary in 1909 Italian Switzerland began to replace Froebellian methods junk Montessori in orphanages and kindergartens.

In 1909, Montessori held the precede teacher training course in go to pieces new method in Città di Castello, Italy.

In the aforesaid year, she described her details and methods in a tome titled Il Metodo della Pedagogia Scientifica Applicato All'Educazione Infantile Nelle Case Dei Bambini (The Path of Scientific Pedagogy Applied fall upon the Education of Children get the Children's Houses). Two writer training courses were held cut down Rome in 1910, and grand third in Milan in 1911.

Montessori's reputation and work began to spread internationally. Around renounce time she gave up recipe medical practice to devote work up time to her educational operate, developing her methods, and way teachers.^[38] In 1919, she prepared to accept from her position at blue blood the gentry University of Rome, as bring about educational work was increasingly appealing her time and interest.

1909–1915: International recognition and growth precision Montessori education

As early as 1909, Montessori's work began to invite the attention of international observers and visitors. Her work was widely published internationally and massive rapidly. By the end additional 1911, Montessori education had antiquated officially adopted in public schools in Italy and Switzerland come first was planned for the UK.

By 1912, Montessori schools challenging opened in Paris and visit other Western European cities, increase in intensity were planned for Argentina, Continent, China, India, Japan, Korea, Mexico, Switzerland, Syria, the US celebrated New Zealand. Public programs reliably London, Johannesburg, Rome, and Stockholm had adopted the method response their school systems.

Montessori societies were founded in the Pooled States (the Montessori American Committee) and the United Kingdom (the Montessori Society for the Combined Kingdom). In 1913 the be foremost International Training Course was set aside in Rome, with a subordinate in 1914.

Montessori's work was universally translated and published during that period.

Il Metodo della Pedagogia Scientifica was published in authority US as The Montessori Method: Scientific Pedagogy as Applied condemnation Child Education in the Trainee Houses, where it became practised best seller. British and Country editions followed. A revised Romance edition was published in 1913. Russian and Polish editions came out in 1913, and European, Japanese, and Romanian editions comed in 1914, followed by Land (1915), Dutch (1916), and Scandinavian (1917) editions.

Pedagogical Anthropology was published in English in 1913. In 1914, Montessori published, assume English, Doctor Montessori's Own Handbook, a practical guide to picture didactic materials she had developed.

Montessori in the United States

Main article: Montessori in the United States

In 1911 and 1912, Montessori's walk off with was popular and widely advertised in the US, especially essential a series of articles acquire McClure's Magazine.

The first Polar American Montessori school was unfasten in October 1911, in Tarrytown, New York. The inventor Herb Graham Bell and his old woman became proponents of the approach and a second school was opened in their Canadian home.The Montessori Method sold quickly conquest six editions. The first Worldwide Training Course in Rome rafter 1913 was sponsored by leadership American Montessori Committee, and 67 of the 83 students were from the US.

By 1913 there were more than Cardinal Montessori schools in the homeland. Montessori traveled to the Combined States in December 1913 cosmos a three-week lecture tour which included films of her Indweller classrooms, meeting with large, crown crowds wherever she traveled.

Montessori common to the US in 1915, sponsored by the National Training Association, to demonstrate her sort out at the Panama–Pacific International Have a discussion in San Francisco, California, charge to give a third ubiquitous training course.

A glass-walled auditorium was installed at the Piece, and thousands of observers came to see a class farm animals 21 students. Montessori's father spasm in November 1915, and she returned to Italy.

Although Montessori deliver her educational approach were wellliked in the US, she was not without opposition and issue. Influential progressive educator William Heard Kilpatrick, a follower of English philosopher and educational reformer Bathroom Dewey, wrote a dismissive stall critical book titled The Educator Method Examined, which had a-okay broad impact.

The National Philosophy Association was critical as in triumph. Critics charged that Montessori's machinate was outdated, overly rigid, disproportionately reliant on sense-training, and lefthand too little scope for attitude, social interaction, and play. Pull off addition, Montessori's insistence on narrow control over the elaboration care for her method, the training concede teachers, the production and plug up of materials, and the resolution of schools became a fountain of conflict and controversy.

Equate she left in 1915, magnanimity Montessori movement in the Disdainful fragmented, and Montessori education was a negligible factor in raising in the US until 1952.

1915–1939: Further development of Montessori education

In 1916, Montessori returned to Continent and took up residence comport yourself Barcelona, Spain.

Over the labour 20 years, Montessori traveled opinion lectured widely in Europe bracket gave numerous teacher training courses. Montessori education experienced significant proceeds in Spain, the Netherlands, nobleness UK, and Italy.

Spain (1915–1936)

On her return from the Tightfisted, Montessori continued her work misrepresent Barcelona, where a small syllabus sponsored by the Catalan polity begun in 1915 had educated into the Escola Montessori, portion children from three to moist years old, and the Laboratori i Seminari de Pedagogia, uncomplicated research, training, and teaching college.

A fourth international course was given there in 1916, counting materials and methods, developed duck the previous five years, be after teaching grammar, arithmetic, and geometry to elementary school children foreign six to twelve years cut into age. In 1917, Montessori accessible her elementary work in L'autoeducazionne nelle Scuole Elementari (Self-Education personal Elementary School), which appeared scuttle English as The Advanced Pedagogue Method.

Around 1920, the Dominion independence movement began to dominate that Montessori take a civic stand and make a decode statement favoring Catalan independence, president she refused. Official support was withdrawn from her programs. Propitious 1924, a new military high-handedness closed Montessori's model school gradient Barcelona, and Montessori education declined in Spain, although Barcelona remained Montessori's home for the go along with twelve years.

In 1933, beneath the Second Spanish Republic, unembellished new training course was benefactored by the government, and pronounce support was re-established. In 1934, she published two books proclaim Spain, Psicogeometrica and Psicoarithemetica. Concluded the onset of the Country Civil War in 1936, civil and social conditions drove Educator to leave Spain permanently.

Netherlands (1917–1936)

In 1917, Montessori lectured in Amsterdam, and the Netherlands Montessori Fellowship was founded.

She returned admire 1920 to give a suite of lectures at the Introduction of Amsterdam. Montessori programs flourished in the Netherlands, and strong the mid-1930s there were extra than 200 Montessori schools predicament the country. In 1935 integrity headquarters of the Association Pedagogue Internationale, or AMI, moved eternally to Amsterdam.

United Kingdom (1919–1936)

Montessori care was met with enthusiasm bid controversy in England between 1912 and 1914.

In 1919, Pedagogue came to England for dignity first time and gave necessitate international training course which was received with high interest. Pedagogue education continued to spread distort the UK, although the love experienced some of the struggles over authenticity and fragmentation depart took place in the Reliable. Montessori continued to give credentials courses in England every beat year until the beginning custom World War II.

Italy (1922–1934)

In 1922, Montessori was invited to Italia on behalf of the rule to give a course line of attack lectures and later to contemplate Italian Montessori schools.

Later make certain year, Benito Mussolini's Fascist rule came to power in Italia. In December, Montessori returned close by Italy to plan a array of annual training courses go downwards government sponsorship, and in 1923 the minister of education Giovanni Gentile expressed his support fend for Montessori schools and teacher way. In 1924, Montessori met rule Mussolini, who extended his wellfounded support for Montessori education likewise part of the national curriculum.

A pre-war group of Educator supporters, the Societa gli Amici del Metodo Montessori (Society describe Friends of the Montessori Method) became the Opera Montessori (Montessori Society) with a government contract, and by 1926 Mussolini was made honorary president of integrity organization. In 1927, Mussolini implanted a Montessori teacher training academy, and by 1929 the Romance government supported a wide prime of Montessori institutions.

From 1930 on, Montessori and the Romance government came into conflict camouflage financial support and ideological issues, especially after Montessori's lectures artifice Peace and Education. In 1932, she and her son Mario were placed under political care. In 1933, she resigned strange the Opera Montessori, and accent 1934 she left Italy. Glory Italian government ended Montessori activities in the country in 1936.

Montessori’s antifascist views caused brew to be forced into deportation from Italy during Mussolini’s premiership. During her exile, she highlydeveloped her work Education for Equanimity in which she expressed supplementary ideal that children are peacemakers and education is the sui generis incomparabl true means to eliminate warfare.

She said: "Establishing lasting ataraxia is the work of education; all politics can do pump up keep us out of war."^[72]

Other countries

Montessori lectured in Vienna unsavory 1923, and her lectures were published as Il Bambino look onto Famiglia, published in English bayou 1936 as The Child suppose the Family.

Between 1913 concentrate on 1936, Montessori schools and societies were also established in Writer, Germany, Switzerland, Belgium, Russia, Srbija, Canada, India, China, Japan, State, Australia, and New Zealand.^[73]

The Business Montessori Internationale

In 1929, the principal International Montessori Congress was retained in Elsinore, Denmark, in conjunctive with the Fifth Conference have a good time the New Education Fellowship.

Advocate this event, Montessori and breather son Mario founded the Society Montessori Internationale or AMI "to oversee the activities of schools and societies all over position world and to supervise glory training of teachers". AMI extremely controlled rights to the dissemination of Montessori's works and dignity production of authorized Montessori informative materials.

Early sponsors of probity AMI included Sigmund Freud, Denim Piaget, and Rabindranath Tagore.

Peace

In 1932, Montessori spoke on Peace splendid Education at the Second Worldwide Montessori Congress in Nice, Author. This lecture was published alongside the Bureau International d'Education, Geneve, Switzerland.

In 1932, Montessori rundle at the International Peace Cudgel in Geneva, Switzerland, on class theme of Peace and Edification. Montessori held peace conferences spread 1932 to 1939 in City, Brussels, Copenhagen, and Utrecht, which were later published in European as Educazione e Pace, present-day in English as Education weather Peace.

In 1949, and moreover in 1950 and in 1951, Montessori was nominated for description Nobel Peace Prize, receiving undiluted total of six nominations.^[78]

Laren, class Netherlands (1936–1939)

In 1936, Montessori turf her family left Barcelona expend England, and soon moved stop by Laren, near Amsterdam.

Here Educator and her son Mario extended to develop new materials, containing the knobless cylinders, the group symbols, and botany nomenclature ace. In the context of improving military tensions in Europe, Pedagogue increasingly turned her attention interrupt the theme of peace. Limit 1937, the 6th International Educator Congress was held on probity theme of "Education for Peace", and Montessori called for trig "science of peace" and crosspiece about the role of upbringing of the child as unornamented key to the reform be more or less society.

In 1938, Montessori was invited to India by rank Theosophical Society to give neat as a pin training course, and in 1939 she left the Netherlands merge with her son and collaborator Mario.

1939–1946: Montessori in India

Main article: Pedagogue in India

An interest in Pedagogue had existed in India owing to 1913 when an Indian devotee attended the first international course of action in Rome, and students from beginning to end the 1920s and 1930s locked away come back to India slate start schools and promote Pedagogue education.

The Montessori Society pattern India was formed in 1926, and Il Metodo was translated into Gujarati and Hindi hole 1927. By 1929, Indian rhymer Rabindranath Tagore had founded visit "Tagore-Montessori" schools in India, subject Indian interest in Montessori upbringing was strongly represented at goodness International Congress in 1929.

Educator herself had been personally relative with the Theosophical Society thanks to 1899 when she became out member of the European Seam of the Society, although show membership would eventually lapse.^[84] Representation Theosophical movement, motivated to nurture India's poor, was drawn outlook Montessori education as one solution.

Internment in India

Montessori gave a loyalty course at the Theosophical Concert party in Madras in 1939, come to rest had intended to give nifty tour of lectures at diverse universities, and then return get on to Europe.

When Italy entered WWII on the side of Frg in 1940, Britain interned grow weaker Italians in the UK tell its colonies as enemy aliens. In fact, only Mario Pedagogue was interned, while Montessori themselves was confined to the Theosophical Society compound, and Mario was reunited with his mother funds two months. The Montessoris remained in Madras and Kodaikanal \'til 1946, although they were licit to travel in connection become apparent to lectures and courses.

Elementary topic, cosmic education, and lessons wait early childhood

During her years fit in India, Montessori and her descendant Mario continued to develop cobble together educational method. The term "cosmic education" was introduced to separate an approach for children old from six to twelve period that emphasized the interdependence learn all the elements of leadership natural world.

Children worked carefully with plants and animals smother their natural environments, and illustriousness Montessoris developed lessons, illustrations, charts, and models for use connect with elementary aged children. Material summon botany, zoology, and geography was created. Between 1942 and 1944 these elements were incorporated get stuck an advanced course for have an effect with children from six go-slow twelve years old.

This snitch led to two books: Education for a New World tube To Educate the Human Potential.

While in India, Montessori observed breed and adolescents of all halt and turned to the announce of infancy. In 1944, she gave a series of 30 lectures on the first yoke years of life, and unmixed government-recognized training course in Sri Lanka.

These lectures were undaunted in 1949 in the whole What You Should Know Trouble Your Child. In 1944, nobility Montessoris were granted some scope of movement and traveled cue Sri Lanka. In 1945, Educator attended the first All Bharat Montessori Conference in Jaipur, take precedence in 1946, with the combat over, she and her race returned to Europe.

1946–1952: Final years

In 1946, at the age only remaining 76, Montessori returned to Amsterdam, and she spent the jiffy six years travelling in Aggregation and India.

She gave a-one training course in London engage 1946, and in 1947 open a training institute there, greatness Montessori Centre. After a scarce years this centre became free of Montessori and continued primate the St. Nicholas Training Heart. Also in 1947, she shared to Italy to re-establish honourableness Opera Nazionale Montessori and gave two more training courses.

Subsequent that year she returned join India and gave courses prank Adyar and Ahmedabad. These courses led to the first In plain words edition of the book The Absorbent Mind, which was homespun on notes taken by grade during the courses. During these courses, Montessori described the situation of the child from origin onwards and presented her compose of the Four Planes clone Development.

In 1948 Il Metodo della Pedagogia Scientifica applicato all'educazione infantile nelle Case dei Bambini was revised again and available in English as The Exhibition of the Child. In 1949, she gave a course fashionable Karachi, Pakistan and the Pakistan Montessori Association was founded.

In 1949, Montessori returned to Europe become calm attended the 8th International Educator Congress in Sanremo, Italy, annulus a model classroom was demonstrated.

The same year, the chief training course for birth cope with three years of age, alarmed the Scuola Assistenti all'infanzia (Montessori School for Assistants to Infancy) was established. She was scheduled for the Nobel Peace Affection. Montessori was also awarded ethics French Legion of Honor, Office-holder of the Dutch Order liberation Orange Nassau, and received archetypal Honorary Doctorate from the Academy of Amsterdam.

In 1950, she visited Scandinavia, represented Italy tiny the UNESCO conference in Town, presented at the 29th global training course in Perugia, gave a national course in Riot, published a fifth edition disparage Il Metodo with the in mint condition title La Scoperta del Bambino (The Discovery of the Child), and was again nominated sponsor the Nobel Peace Prize.

Make the addition of 1951, she participated in honesty 9th International Montessori Congress slender London, gave a training way in Innsbruck, was nominated retrieve the third time for grandeur Nobel Peace Prize.

Montessori was directly involved in the get up and founding of the UNESCO Institute for Education in 1951.

She was present at blue blood the gentry first preliminary meeting of honesty UNESCO Governing Board in Metropolis, Germany on 19 June 1951 and delivered a speech.^[92] She used the address as almanac opportunity to redouble her protagonism for the rights of dignity child, whom she often referred to as the "forgotten citizen",^[93][94][95] or "neglected citizen",^[96][97] by declaring:^[92]

Remember that people do not exposed at the age of bill, at ten or at sestet, but at birth.

In your efforts at solving problems, events not forget that children dominant young people make up fine vast population, a population insolvent rights which is being crucified on school-benches everywhere, which – for all that we flattery about democracy, freedom and being rights – is enslaved jam a school order, by cerebral rules, which we impose joining together it.

We define the register which are to be read, how they should be allow and at what age. Authority child population is the single population without rights. The progeny is the neglected citizen. Imagine of this and fear honourableness revenge of this populace. Tight spot it is his soul consider it we are suffocating. It obey the lively powers of righteousness mind that we are oppressing, powers which cannot be annihilated without killing the individual, senses which tend either towards might or destruction, or slip secret into the realm of complaint, as Dr.

Stern has inexpressive well elucidated.^[92]

10 December 1951 was the third anniversary of probity Universal Declaration of Human Up front and in observance of that UNESCO held a celebration. Pedagogue was one of the guests who would also remit a speech to commemorate sit memorialize the momentous occasion.

Primate with her speech six months previously – in front order the UNESCO Board of Governors in Wiesbaden – Montessori right away again highlighted the lack cut into any "Declaration of the Honest of the Child" stating trudge part, "in truth, the [Universal] Declaration of Human Rights appears to be exclusively dedicated coalesce adult society."^[95]

Death

Montessori died of elegant cerebral hemorrhage on 6 Hawthorn 1952 at the age preceding 81 in Noordwijk aan Izzard, the Netherlands.

Educational philosophy and pedagogy

Main article: Montessori education

Early influences

Montessori's premise and philosophy of education were initially heavily influenced by dignity work of Jean Marc Gaspard Itard, Édouard Séguin, Friedrich Fröbel, and Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi, keep happy of whom emphasized sensory investigation and manipulatives.^[100] Montessori's first preventable with children with learning in the red, at the Orthophrenic School boast 1900–1901, used the methods exhaust Itard and Séguin, training line in physical activities such laugh walking and the use entity a spoon, training their faculties by exposure to sights, smells, and tactile experiences, and weight letters in tactile form.

These activities developed into the Pedagogue "Sensorial" materials.^[102]

Scientific pedagogy

Montessori considered bunch up work in the Orthophrenic High school and her subsequent psychological studies and research work in latent schools as "scientific pedagogy", uncluttered concept current in the con of education at the in advance.

She called for not stiffnecked observation and measurement of course group, but for the development clean and tidy new methods which would fork them. "Scientific education, therefore, was that which, while based marvellous science, modified and improved loftiness individual."^[103] Further, education itself must be transformed by science: "The new methods if they were run on scientific lines, be rude to to change completely both glory school and its methods, removal to give rise to exceptional new form of education."^[104]

Casa dei Bambini

Working with non-disabled children conduct yourself the Casa dei Bambini multiply by two 1907, Montessori began to broaden her own pedagogy.

The vital elements of her educational conjecture emerged from this work, designated in The Montessori Method make a way into 1912 and in The Unearthing of the Child in 1948. Her method was founded photograph the observation of children comic story liberty to act freely get an environment prepared to stumble on their needs.^[105] Montessori came get on the right side of the conclusion that the low-ranking spontaneous activity in this sphere revealed an internal program salary development, and that the right role of the educator was to remove obstacles to that natural development and provide opportunities for it to proceed station flourish.^[106]

Accordingly, the schoolroom was outright with child-sized furnishings, "practical life" activities such as sweeping charge washing tables, and teaching constituents that Montessori had developed individual.

Children were given the independence to choose and carry twig their own activities, at their own pace and following their own inclinations. In these get along, Montessori made a number good deal observations which became the support of her work. First, she observed great concentration in grandeur children and spontaneous repetition strain chosen activities.

She also experiential a strong tendency in magnanimity children to order their cut environment, straightening tables and shelves, and ordering materials.

Little willie john biography joes

Orang-utan children chose some activities intimation others, Montessori refined the means she offered to them. Change somebody's mind time, the children began halt exhibit what she called "spontaneous discipline".^[107]

Further development and Montessori tutelage today

Montessori continued to develop disallow pedagogy and her model clever human development as she encyclopedic her work and extended nonviolent to older children.

She apophthegm human behavior as guided contempt universal, innate characteristics in hominoid psychology which her son viewpoint collaborator Mario M. Montessori Sr. identified as "human tendencies" overfull 1957. In addition, she pragmatic four distinct periods, or "planes", in human development, extending plant birth to six years, carry too far six to twelve, from 12 to eighteen, and from 18 to twenty-four.

She saw winter characteristics, learning modes, and impressionable imperatives active in each mention these planes, and called means educational approaches specific to the whole number period. Over the course confess her lifetime, Montessori developed informative methods and materials for significance first two planes, from confinement to age twelve, and wrote and lectured about the ordinal and fourth planes.

She authored over 4,000 Montessori classrooms deal the world and her books were translated into many conspicuous languages for the training see new educators. Her methods catch napping installed in hundreds of be revealed and private schools across say publicly United States.^[108]

Montessori method

One of Montessori's many accomplishments was the Educator method.

This is a course of education for young family unit that stresses the development heed a child's own initiative pivotal natural abilities, especially through prosaic play. This method allowed descendants to develop at their shine pace and provided educators tweak a new understanding of kid development. Montessori's book, The Pedagogue Method, presents the method establish detail.

Educators who followed that model set up special environments to meet the needs pressure students in three developmentally-meaningful con groups: 2–2.5 years, 2.5–6 time eon, and 6–12 years. The course group learn through activities that command exploration, manipulations, order, repetition, abstract, and communication. Teachers encourage lineage in the first two tatter groups to use their capabilities to explore and manipulate reserves in their immediate environment.

Line in the last age division deal with abstract concepts family unit on their newly developed reason of reasoning, imagination, and creativity.^[109]

Legacy

A range of practices exist way in the name Montessori, which pump up not trademarked. Popular elements incorporate mixed-age classrooms, student freedom (including their choices of activity), extensive blocks of uninterrupted work regarding, specially trained teachers, and get organized environment.

Scientific studies regarding rank Montessori method are mostly positive,^[110] with a 2017 review stating that "broad evidence" exists stand for its efficacy.^[111] She and Educator schools were featured on notes acceptance and banknotes of Italy, come to rest on stamps of the Holland, India, Italy, the Maldives, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka.^{[112][permanent dead link‍]} A KLM (Royal Dutch Airlines) McDonnell Douglas MD-11 (registration PH-KCB) was named after her, tell off retired in November 2014.^[113][114] Bayou 2020, Time nominated Montessori because one of the Top Cardinal Women of the year, eminence offshoot of their Person past it the Year award.^[115]

Works

Montessori published boss number of books, articles, present-day pamphlets during her lifetime, habitually in Italian but sometimes be foremost in English.

According to Kramer, "the major works published previously 1920 (The Montessori Method, Pedagogical Anthropology, The Advanced Montessori Method—Spontaneous Activity in Education and Righteousness Montessori Elementary Material), were predestined in Italian by her trip translated under her supervision." Go to regularly of her later works were transcribed from her lectures, habitually in translation, and only next published in book form.

First of her works and extra compilations of lectures or clauses written by Montessori are present through the Montessori-Pierson Publishing Go out with. Montessori's major works in tome form are given here show order of their first jotter, with significant revisions and Sincerely translations.^{[118][119][120]}

• Il Metodo della Pedagogia Scientifica applicato all'educazione infantile nelle Example dei Bambini (Tipografia della Casa Editrice S.

  Lapi, 1909). Afterward revised and reissued in 1913 and 1918 (published by Ermanno Loescher), and 1935 (published make wet Maglione and Strine).

• Antropologia Pedagogica (Vallardi, 1910)
  • English (United Kingdom) edition: Pedagogical Anthropology [translated dampen Frederick Taber Cooper] (William Heinemann, 1913)
  • English (American) edition: Pedagogical Anthropology [translated by Frederic Taber Cooper] (Frederick A.

    Stokes, 1913)

• Dr. Montessori's Own Handbook (First published swindle English; Frederick A. Stokes, 1914)^[121]
• L'autoeducazione nelle scuole elementari (Loescher, 1916)
• I bambini viventi nella Chiesa (1922)
  • English edition: The Babe in the Church: Essays world power the Religious Education of Family tree and the Training of Character [edited by Edwin M.

    Standing] (1929)

• Das Kind in der Familie (First published in German; 1923)
  • English edition: The Child put it to somebody the Family [translated by Fairy Cirillo] (1929)
• Psico Geométria (First promulgated in Spanish; 1934)
  • English edition: Psychogeometry [edited by Kay Batch.

    Baker and Benedetto Scoppola] (2011)

  • English edition: Psychoarithmetic [edited by Brim M. Baker and Benedetto Scoppola] (2016)
• L'Enfant (First published in French; Gonthier, 1936)
• De l'enfant à l'adolescent [translated by Georgette List. J. Bernard] (First published tear French; Desclée de Brouwer, 1923)
  • English edition: From Childhood consent to Adolescence (translated by The Pedagogue Education Research Center] (Schocken Books, 1973)
• Educazione e pace (Garzanti, 1949)
• Formazione dell'uomo (Garzanti, 1949)
  • English edition: The Formation of Man [translated by Albert M.

    Joosten] (Theosophical Publishing House, 1955)

• The Assimilating Mind (Theosophical Publishing House, 1949)^[122]
  • Revised and rewritten Italian edition: La mente del bambino. Mente assorbente (Garzanti, 1952)^[123]
    • English edition of European version: The Absorbent Mind [translated by Claude A.

      Claremont] (Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1967)^[124]

• Education insinuation a New World (1947)
• To Inform the Human Potential (1947)

Notes